THE VICTORIAN AGEby Mustafa Albanna
A. The Historical and Political Background:. .
The Victorian Age began in the strict sense in 1837, when Victoria became the queen of England. During this period, England became the world's wealthiest nation and, through the reactions and expansion of British Empire, it dominant colonial power. The Victorians also made the firs serious and large-scale attempts to address and solve the social problems central to the industrial and democratic revolutions that had taken place during the Romantic Age. Standing as it does between the Romantic Era and the Twentieth; the Victorian Age has a special relevance for us today...0The Victorian Age was affected by various influences, which effect the way of thinking and also affect the writers at that time and their works. The political issues are one of theme. Taking wars as an example, Patriotic poems are a lot at that time. In the beginning of the war, these poems encourage people to fight for their countries. In the middle of the war the tone changes to a melancholy tone because of the dead people. But by the end of the war it becomes a cheerful tone, so they celebrate the victory and the end of the war, as their will be no more dead people and praise the king. The historical effect also affected the writes but actually it doesn't change from the previous era. The Victorian Age was also affected by the social effects. It was well known as the era of wealth. The Great Britain was known to be empire. There were colonies everywhere. So it became very big country which considered being the strongest country that affected industry. Everybody likes to live there and they are luck to stay in their colonies. And people were wealthy because of the industrial revolution...0 Frank Harous (1854-1931) who is an Irish American writer and who is well known as a person who criticizes the England scene. Yet, in the late Victorian Age, he wrote his novel "My Life and Loves" as a remembering and a recollection of the Victorian Age remembering these days. He said: "London who would give even an idea of its varied delight. London the center of civilization, the queen city of the world without a praise in the multitude of attraction as superior to Paris as Paris to New York". Harous criticizes the problems and revolutions. He admits that London is the center of civilization and can not deny the wealth. However, the country is big. So there will be a lot of problems and revolutions such as the Indian revolution in 1857, Jamaica revolution in 1865, German defeated France in 1871, Ireland tried to get its independent, and U.S.A have the civil war ended and got back its power. By that there were competitions to Britain, so they become so powerful in military and political situations. The U.S.A becomes a rival to Britain in Industry and agriculture fields. All of these were the problems outside England and which affect the era...0On the other hand there are different problems inside Britain which also affect the Era. There is the inner force of labor; they are trying to get together community and union. They mainly wanted to be recognized and treated as decently equal to the upper class people. Labor class in England and their revolutions has a great influence on the thoughts and ideas of people Karl Marx (father of Marxists) and Friedrich Engle. The tried to convince the community that Utopia won't be achieved unless labors (the working class) take over the government and industry by revolution. And the Marxist argue is to have" all people should be equalized, thus they should had equal right and obligations". Rank should be deleted and treatment as well as tasks should be equal as any other level in the society, and that was successful in doing so...0 So with all these tings the country became in-settlements politically and the standards were going down, that leads to revolutions which affect their value and traditions. Taking Edward, the son of Victoria the Queen, as great example. He was the great subject of the scandal in the newspaper. He was a scandalous guy who has a lot of stories in press and so many affairs and illegal relations. His immorality affected the society. So if that was the son of the queen how do expect the other ordinary people to act. So, the society values, traditions and standards will be broken down. All these background arouse the (Aesthetic movement), people start to neglect religion and not to believe in God. Since that was the case, how do we think literature would look like?. It was a moral literature, they are trying to seek new ways and resort their morals. Also, they are trying to find themselves in the middle of these events. Literature is in a melancholy (sad literature).It has a melancholic tone believing that there is no hope in society and trying to seek comfort and inner peace. Literature at that time was so sophisticated, deep in the meaning to proof and search for something new...0 At the end of the 19th century there is a French phrase "Fin de siecle" the end of the circle, the end of the century. It was well known in the 19th century the last decade of Victorian age. It was the turning point between the two centuries. Moreover, there is a movement called (modernist movement), it is about critics try to establish themselves. The famous among theme were: Yeats, Hardy and Shaw. In the middle of all these, literature is melancholy, deep, full of meaning, search to find themselves in order to find the right way. It was sophisticated. and Marx Nordan send up what happened by writing book titled of "de lost of hope"...0- - - - -
B- Social and Economic Issues: (The Role of Woman)....0
Woman plays good and great role in the society of the Victorian Are. In those years the country was well known of freedom in the way dealing with women. The economical and the political issues in country affect women. Great Britain tries to play good role to give the women their right role. Friedrich Engle (1844) said: "England is unquestionably the freest country in the world". England did a lot to give liberty to women. However, women were not given their own right. They can not inherit or vote, do not have the right to act or hold the political offices and positions. Also they do not have the right to control property when they are married. Women have simply no right, and did not have any political position at all. Therefore many things have been done to liberate women. Thus many Acts had occurs to provide the equality of women...0The first act called Married Woman's Property Acts (1870-1908); they try to give women the right to control their property even if they are married. After this act existence, women start asking for their own right of getting divorce, which was not allowed before that time because of the double standard of society (in the relation and the way of treating woman, they are not treated equally) unless for at least two reasons of the following: bigamy (being married to more than one a day), incest (adultery with the relatives), or bestiality (having sex in an abnormal way-animal, same sex)...0Moreover, they always questioned the women's ability to work and handle employment. Wealth and industrial revolution emerged, so many opportunities of work occurred. There were many factories and they needed worker. They employed women to work 16 hours in day and paid them less money. They also work in a bad situations and conditions (e.g.: women were working in mines to bring coal) because they need money. So, these situations create an act which is The Factory Acts (1802-1878); they decrease the hours of working because they can't bear such effort. They also raise the payment but it is still not more than men. They put regulations and rules trying to improve the women worker....0Also there is another Act occurs which called The Custody Act (1839); asking for giving woman the right to take her children under 7 years in the case of divorce, and that the woman has the right to ask for custody of her children only under 7 years. By 1878, she can hold kids under 16 years old. The final Act is The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act (1857); when a woman wants to divorce she must go to "Ecclesiastical Court" which is a religious court (like church). then there is a new court called "Civil Court" deals with civil people in civil way not religious. Even though, divorce is expensive, it is still a step to women liberty....0All the previous was the political and the social issues. What about the educational issues for women?. The high degree that women can attain is high school education. They do not allow women to have high degrees. In 1837 there were three universities in England and none of theme allowed women to enter. Tennyson wrote a poem called "The Princess". He imagines a fancy college for women where they can have high degrees and high education. With pleasure, there was the first college for women established in 1848. Oxford and Cambridge University allowed women to study but they can not have degrees. By the end of the Victorian Era, there are 12 universities give the women the right to enter and acquire degrees. As women become educated, women writers appear to the scene. There were famous writer such as Elizabeth Browing (Browing wife),Jane Austen, charlotte Bront and her sister, and Florance Nightingale....0 These Acts and changes are minor; they do not resolve women problems. they are basic and first step for liberty. They were still uneducated and unmarried women because the numbers of women were more than women and the education was so expensive. so, a lot of women leave the country and the number of immigration increased. There was no moral, illegal relationship. Prostitution becomes a profession, not shameful. The decent work that women can do was a governess as it is the most job position women can hold. For example; Jane Eyre and Vanity Faire. Women do nothing but domestic work. Then all revolutions think about women and what they think and they need trying to search equality. Questions of women that aroused in these days concern with this idea. Tennyson brought up in his writings "Women Questions" and Henry James in "Portrait of a lady" talk about this subject which is what women want in life....0-------------------------
C - Literary Scene in the Late 19th Century:....0
The industrial revolution affected the literary scene. Before the industrial revolution, books were hand written, so
they were expensive and few people read. But by the industry many printing machines came to the scene. As a result of that, books became cheaper than before. Also, magazines, periodicals and news paper appear. In London 170 periodical magazines were published. After the Educational Acts, there were literate people can read and write (half of he nation). Also their were varieties of specializations (women, sport, drama …etc). So the literary scene was full of periodical which satisfied all the social rank. One thing has popped up which was the "Reviews" when anew book is published, they write a summary, comment and opinion about the book and its writer. So they can affect the common people. The Review is signed anonymously (by no name). So, the writer can be freely and honestly, also that make a great effect on public opinion on any written book....0In the Victorian Era, some writers published their novels as a series in the magazines or periodicals to let people read. By this way, the writer will affect the people more. The author also will be more connected to the common people. He can see their actions and know their problems and needs. Also by this way it will be more interested because in the Victorian Era their was no television or dram, so these series novel was a social gathering. Writing seriously has a nice advantage. Because if the people react positively the writer continue in the same way but if they do not like it he twist it. So the mode of the novel was very realistic. The writers write about the daily life (people from different classes) and problems. They give variety of setting, social classes, characters, themes, plot, subject as well as style. So they were down-to-earth( the novel represents level of qualities, materialistic problems, women's' struggles…ect).....0Literature is a reflection and mirror of the humanity. Therefore the common theme of the Victorian Age was equality, economy, social rank problems, women's' questions. There were individual search for self-realization especially women, they try to achieve their self—fulfillment and to achieve their place in the society and satisfaction. They also want to prove themselves in the society. So, a lot of novels were published by women in the Victorian Age because they want to show their rights, challenge, and fears, and to show that they are equal to men. Also, to express their problems and solve them especially, family problems as they know them better than men. Moreover they want to improve themselves in the society....0 By the improvement of the society, several kinds of novels appear. Romantic novels, social and political novels, mysterious novels, crime and horror novels. Also, their were novel about science fiction and adventures. Also they wrote psychological novels. Moreover, the historical and deductive subjects appeared. This variety of themes in literature help the writer to draw their attention to their problems and that helps theme to solve it and start the social reform......0
وهذا بالعربي :الأدب الفكتوري 1832-1901
مأصبحت فكتوريا ملكة بريطانيا عام 1837م؛ واستمر حكمها، الذي يعتبر الأطول في تاريخ إنجلترا، حتى عام 1901م. وتعرف هذه الفترة بالعصر الفكتوري.شهد العصر الفكتوري تغيّرًا عظيمًا في الاقتصاد والاجتماع والسياسة، حيث وصلت الإمبراطورية البريطانية إلى أوج عظمتها لتغطي حوالي ربع الكرة الأرضية. توسعت التجارة والصناعة بسرعة، وقطعت السكك الحديدية والأقنية المائية البلاد طولاً وعرضًا. وتَقدَّم العلمُ والتكنولوجيا، وكبر حجم الطبقة المتوسطة بشكل هائل. أخذ عدد المثقفين يزداد في الخمسينيات من القرن التاسع عشر الميلادي. إضافة إلى ذلك قدمت الحكومة إصلاحات ديمقراطية، فسمحت، على سبيل المثال، لعدد أكبر من الناس بالتصويت.بالرغم من رخاء العصر الفكتوري، إلا أن عمال المصانع والمزارع كانوا يعيشون في فقر مدقع. وهذا ما دعا بنجامين ديزرائيلي، وكان من أشهر رؤساء وزراء هذه الفترة، إلى وصف إنجلترا ببلد الأمَّتين، واحدة غنية والثانية فقيرة. كما ظهرت في النصف الثاني من القرن التاسع عشر بعض النظريات العلمية التي بدت وكأنها تتحدى التعاليم الدينية. وأكثر هذه النظريات مثارًا للجدل نظرية النشوء والارتقاء التي قال بها عالم الأحياء تشارلز داروين. قال داروين في كتاب أصل الأنواع (1859م) بأن كل كائن حي قد ارتقى من كائن آخر قبله. بناء عليه بدا وكأن داروين يناقض قصة الإنجيل عن الخلق، وهو ـ أيضًا ـ يخالف ماورد في القرآن الكريم عن خلق الإنسان.تناول كتّاب العصر الفكتوري التباين بين غنى الطبقتين المتوسطة والعليا وحالة الطبقة الفقيرة المُزرية؛ كما بدأوا في تحليل ضعف الإيمان بالقيم التقليدية في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر الميلادي.أوليفر تويست رواية من روائع تشارلز ديكنر وقد هاجم فيها الظلم الاجتماعي في العهد الفيكتوري. يعكس هذا المشهد أوليفر وهو يستجدي رئيس دار الأيتام كي يعطيه مزيدًا من الطعام. الأدب الفكتوري المبكر. يتضمن هذا الأدب بعض أشهر الروايات التي كُتبت في الأدب الإنجليزي. كتب معظم روائيي هذه الفترة أعمالاً طويلة تتضمن شخصيات متنوعة. وفي الكثير من الحالات، ضمَّن المؤلفون حوادث حقيقية في قصصهم.تشتهر روايات تشارلز ديكنز بشخوصها الغنية والغريبة الأطوار في بعض الأحيان. ففي روايتي أوليفر تويست (1837-1839م) وديفيد كوبرفيلد (1849- 1850م) يصف ديكنزحياة أطفال حولتها قسوة الكبار وغباؤهم إلى جحيم. وصوّر ديكِنز الجانب المظلم للحياة في العصر الفكتوري في البيت الكئيب (1852- 1853م). إذ انتقد في هذه الرواية المحاكم ورجال الدين وإهمال الفقراء.ألف وليم ميكبيس ثاكاري رائعة الفن القصصي الفكتوري المسماة دار الغرور ( 1847-1848م). تتابع القصة حياة العديد من الأشخاص في المجتمع الإنجليزي من مطلع القرن التاسع عشر في مراحل متنوعة من فترة ما قبل العصر الفكتوري.تحتوي روايات الأخوات الثلاث لعائلة برونتي وهن إميلي وتشارلوت وآن على العديد من العناصر الرومانسية. وهذه الروايات مشهورة بسبب تصويرها حياة شخصيات معذبة نفسيًا على وجه الخصوص. ويعتبر النقاد رواية إميلي برونتي مرتفعات وذرنج(1847م) ورواية تشارلوت برونتي جين إير (1847م) من أعظم الأعمال الروائية في العصر الفكتوري.ألف العديد من الكتاب أعمالاً غير قصصية تناولت مساوئ العصر حسب اعتقادهم. مثالاً على ذلك، هاجم توماس كارلايل الطمع والرياء الذي رآه في مجتمعه في كتاب سارتور ريسارتوس (1833-1834م). وبحث جون ستيوارت مل العلاقة بين المجتمع والفرد في مقالته المطولة عن الحرية (1859م).الأدب الفكتوري اللاحق. ظهر في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر أسلوب متشائم في الكثير من أفضل الأعمال الشعرية والنثرية الفكتورية، فقد بحث اللورد تنيسون مشاكل عصره الدينية والفكرية في قصيدته الطويلة للذكرى (1850م). وعبّر ماثيو آرنولد عن شكِّه في الحياة الحديثة في قصائد قصيرة مثل الغجري ـ العالم (1853م) وشاطئ دوفر (1867م). أما أكثر إنجازات أرنولد الأدبية شهرة فهي مقالاته النقدية عن الحضارة والأدب والدين والمجتمع. وقد جمع العديد من هذه المقالات في كتاب الحضارة والفوضى (1869م).كان روبرت براونينج واحدًا من أبرز الشعراء الفكتوريين. وقد وضع نماذج دراسة ناجحة للشخصية أطلق عليها اسم المنولوج المسرحي. تسرد القصة في هذه القصائد شخصية خيالية. أشهر أعمال براونينج عمله المسمى الخاتم والكتاب (1868-1869م). وقد بنى القصيدة على قصة اغتيال حدثت في إيطاليا عام 1698م. يتكلم عن القضية في القصيدة اثنتا عشرة شخصية، كل من وجهة نظره الخاصة. وكانت زوجته واسمها إليزابيث باريت براونينج شاعرة أيضًا، ألفت سوناتات متتالية عن الحب مهداة إلى زوجها تدعى سوناتات من البرتغالية (1850م).كتب جيرارد مانلي هوبكنز أشعارًا دينية تجريبية لم تنشر حتى عام 1918م، بعد ثلاثين عامًا من وفاته تقريبًا. تميز شعره بأسلوب سماه الإيقاع المتوثب حاول فيه محاكاة الحديث الطبيعي. رغم أنه ملأه صورًا غنية ومزيجًا غريبًا من الكلمات. وتعتبر السوناتات العسيرة (1885م) نموذجًا ممثلاً لأعماله.كان في مقدمة الروائيين الفكتوريين في هذه الفترة جورج إليوت (الاسم المستعار لماري آن إيفانز)، وجورج مرديث، وتوماس هاردي. تتناول قصص إليوت مشاكل عصرها الاجتماعية والأخلاقية. وتعتبر رائعتها ميدل مارش (1871-1872م) أفضل أعمالها. وتتميز روايات مرديث وأعماله الشعرية بقدرتها على تناول الشَّخصيات بطريقة نفسية ذكية. تتضمن أهم أعماله روايات محنة ريتشارد فيفاريل (1859م) والأناني (1879م) والسوناتات المتتالية الحب الحديث (1862م). وسيطرت روايات هاردي على الأدب الإنجليزي في نهاية القرن التاسع عشر الميلادي. كتب هاردي قصصًا واقعية ينهزم فيها الأشخاص أمام الأزمات. لقد استخدم مناظر خيالية من منطقة وسكس لتساعده على تهيئة ذلك الجو التأملي الذي تتميز به رواياته مثل عمدة كاستربردج (1886م) وجودي الغامض (1895م). وكان هاردي شاعرًا موهوبًا أيضًا.بُعثت المسرحية من جديد في نهاية العصر الفكتوري تقريبًا، إذ لم يكن هناك مسرحيات مهمة في إنجلترا منذ أواخر القرن الثامن عشر إلى نهاية القرن التاسع عشر الميلاديين. غير أنه في بداية القرن العشرين، استطاع عدد من كتاب المسرحية بعث الحياة في المسرح الإنجليزي بإنتاج ملاهٍ ذكية ومسرحيات واقعية عن مشاكل العصر الاجتماعية.استرجع أوسكار وايلد عهد الكوميديا الأخلاقية المتألقة في فترة عودة الملكية بتأليفه مسرحية مروحة الليدي ويندرميرر (1892م) الزوج المثالي (1895م). وكتب جورج برنارد شو مسرحيات ذكية؛ غير أنه كان مهتمًا بالدرجة الأولى بالكشف عن العيوب التي رآها في المجتمع. تتضمن أفضل أعماله التي أنتجها في نهاية القرن التاسع عشر الرجل والسلاح (1894م) وكانديدا (1895م). وكتب السير آرثر وينج باينيرو عددًا من الكوميديات والميلودراما. لكنه بنى شهرته على مسرحيته السيدة تانكري الثانية (1893م) ومسرحيات اجتماعية أخرى.
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